1.0 Abstract:
I will investigate the timing, spatial patterning and rate
of bedrock fluvial incision in Holtwood Gorge along the Susquehanna
River, Pennsylvania using cosmogenic nuclides. The Gorge, located
approximately 50 km upstream from Chesapeake Bay into which the
Susquehanna River empties, displays at least three levels of bedrock
terraces (straths) ideal for the application of cosmogenic dating
techniques. The overall aim of my research is to develop a new
application of cosmogenic dating in order to investigate the relationship
between ancient, passive margin river levels, represented by the
strath terraces, and otherwise documented changes in climate,
land level and sea level during the late Quaternary.
I have conducted a high level GPS survey of Holtwood Gorge and
collected 64 samples from water-polished bedrock surfaces representing
all three prominent strath levels. I have constructed a detailed
field map correlating surfaces using field observations, GPS data,
aerial photographs and topographic maps. Paleo-river gradients
have been calculated and graphically represented. I have purified
quartz from the majority of my samples.
Exposure ages will be modeled from measured nuclide activities
using standard altitude and longitude correction factors. The
spatial patterning of erosion and vertical rates of incision will
be compared to Pleistocene sea-level fluctuations, global ice
volume estimates, the oxygen deep-sea isotope record and models
of North American isostatic adjustment in an attempt to decipher
how passive margin rivers respond to such external forces.
2.0 Introduction:
Large rivers draining the North American Atlantic passive
margin (the Susquehanna, Potomac, Rappahannock, and James) have
incised deep channels into bedrock of the Piedmont Province over
the past several million years (Pazzaglia et al., 1998). The Susquehanna
River, as it flows from its headwaters in the central Appalachian
Mountains to the Chesapeake Bay, has cut flights of bedrock terraces
(straths) that are preserved within, and along the sides of gorges
in its lower reaches (Thompson and Sevon, 2001; Figure 1). Most
workers believe fluvial terraces represent adjustments made by
a river in reaction to external changes including climate fluctuations
or isostasy (Bull, 1990; Engel et al., 1996; Pazzaglia and Gardner,
1994b). Thus, strath terraces, if they can be dated, are potentially
useful tools for investigating the interaction between glaciation,
fluvial processes, glacial isostasy and eustasy in the eastern
United Stated during the Quaternary (Engel et al., 1996).
The rate at which passive margin bedrock rivers erode rock, and
the ultimate causes and timing of this incision are poorly understood
(Tinkler and Wohl, 1998), because, until recently, direct dating
of the bedrock terraces left behind has not been possible. Measurement
of cosmogenic nuclide activities by accelerator mass spectrometry
(Elmore and Phillips, 1987) now provides an opportunity to estimate
exposure ages of bedrock surfaces exposed by fluvial erosion (Bierman,
1994). I will measure 10Be and some 26Al activities in quartz
extracted from approximately 80 bedrock samples collected from
terraces within the lower reaches of the Susquehanna River in
order to understand terrace exposure history and thus infer behavior
of the river over time.
The physical process by which these rivers carve through their
bedrock channels, leaving behind flights of strath terraces is
uncertain. A model proposed by E-an Zen (1997a; 1997b) for the
formation of similar strath terraces along the Potomac River,
near Washington, DC, involves the headward migration of knickpoints,
forming a cataract-gorge system through Great Falls Park. Along
the Susquehanna River, the formation of potholes, which exploit
natural weaknesses in the bedrock, could have aided in the propagation
of such knickpoints (Thompson and Sevon, 2001; Figure 2 &
3e).
3.0 Primary Objectives:
This study will utilize cosmogenic nuclide analysis and interpretive
modeling of approximately 80 samples collected from within the
Susquehanna River basin in order to:
determine the nuclide activity and model the exposure age of at
least three levels of river terraces within the lower reaches
of the Susquehanna River,
determine both the vertical and longitudinal rate at which the Susquehanna River incised bedrock during the carving of Holtwood Gorge,
determine whether this incision can be correlated to otherwise documented changes in climate and resulting effects, as well as glacial isostasy throughout the Pleistocene,
refine this new application of cosmogenic nuclides by investigating the spatial pattern of nuclide activity at various scales on bedrock fluvial landforms in order to understand better the dynamics of erosion and exposure in passive margin, bedrock river systems.
4.0 Study Site:
4.1 Susquehanna River: The Susquehanna River extends
for more than 500 km (Engel et al., 1996) as it drains approximately
62,000 km2 (Pazzaglia et al., 1998) of the Appalachian plateau
and Piedmont Province in New York State, eastern Pennsylvania
and northeastern Maryland. With a mean annual discharge of 1053
m3/s and peak annual discharge of 8610 m3/s (USGS Stream Flow
Data from Gauging Station at Marietta, PA (1932-2001)) into the
Chesapeake Bay, the Susquehanna is the largest drainage system
of the Appalachian Mountain chain (Thompson, 1990). In northeastern
and northcentral Pennsylvania, the Susquehanna generally exhibits
a dendritic drainage pattern (Scharnberger, 1990) with broad,
shallow channels and an average stream gradient of 0.5 m km-1
(Pazzaglia and Gardner, 1993, 1994a). In its lower reaches, the
Susquehanna narrows and deepens as it cuts through the Wissahickon
Schist of the high Piedmont. Its gradient steepens to an average
of 1 m km-1 and it exhibits a strongly convex-up longitudinal
profile (Pazzaglia and Gardner, 1993, 1994b).
4.2 Holtwood Gorge: Holtwood Gorge, located approximately
50 km upstream of Chesapeake Bay and immediately downstream from
Holtwood Dam, is carved approximately 120 m (Thompson and Sevon,
2001) into the Wissahickon Schist and harbors at least three distinct
levels of striking bedrock terraces which are preserved along
the sides of the gorge and as isolated bedrock islands (dissected
straths) within the gorge (Figures 4 & 3a through 3d). The
uppermost level, which is restricted primarily to the western
bank of the Susquehanna River and to island tops in the lower
gorge, consists of heavily weathered accordant summits. I am uncertain
if these summits represent abandoned fluvial surfaces. Intermediate
levels (2 & 3) still preserve a fluvially sculptured form
and, in some cases, can be correlated nearly 5 km downstream.
The lowest strath is visible and accessible only at times when
Holtwood Dam is not releasing water. This level exists as an expansive
and planar surface stretching from the dam almost 2 km downstream
on the western two-thirds of the river. In general, this surface
is more 'ragged' and less sculptured than the intermediate levels,
suggesting that a period of time is required for surfaces to acquire
a water worn appearance.
Enormous potholes, ranging in size from several cm in depth and
diameter to nearly 9 m in depth and 4-6 m in diameter, are abundant
within the gorge (Figure 3e). These potholes, which dip upstream
and develop at the intersection of the NE-striking foliation and
a NNW-striking joint set, suggest that erosion and removal of
material from the gorge was efficiently accomplished by quarrying
of large bedrock blocks (Thompson and Sevon, 2001). The Wissahickon
Schist dips steeply downstream and contains abundant boudins of
almost pure quartz. The well preserved bedrock terrace levels
and ubiquitous quartz, well suited for sample collection and processing,
make Holtwood
Gorge an ideal location to utilize cosmogenic dating techniques.
5.0 Previous Work:
The Susquehanna River basin, the southern half of which has
remained free of ice during all Pliocene and Pleistocene glaciations,
offers the opportunity to study a variety of proximate and distal
glaciofluvial features not present in unglaciated or fully glaciated
basins. For this reason, sequences of glacial moraines in northeastern
Pennsylvania, river terraces preserved south of the glacial margin,
and coastal deposits have been extensively studied in an effort
to decipher the effect of glaciation and/or other climate perturbations
on passive margin river systems.
5.1 Glacial Chronology of Pennsylvania: Evidence for nine
periods of glaciation, ranging in age from older than the Pliocene/
Pleistocene transition (1.65 mya) to the late Wisconsin glaciation
(35-10 kya) can be found within the U.S. (Richmond and Fullerton,
1986). However, tills from only three of these glacial periods
are preserved in northeastern Pennsylvania, through which the
North and West Branches of the Susquehanna River flow. Radiocarbon
dating has constrained the age of the Late Wisconsin glacial advance
to 17 k to 22 k 14C years in Pennsylvania, with a maximum extent
at about 20 k years (Braun, 1988; Sevon and Fleeger, 1999). Two
older moraines, not overrun by the late Wisconsin advance, have
been identified and assigned general ages through comparison to
the oxygen isotope record and the Matuyamma-Brunhes magnetic polarity
reversal. A swath of unnamed till across northeastern Pennsylvania
correlates to the Titusville Till in western Pennsylvania and
has been assigned an age of late-Illinoian ( 132 ka-198 ka; Sevon
and Fleeger, 1999). The oldest of the Pennsylvanian tills extends
approximately 50 km further south from the late-Illinoian moraine
and is overlain by lake clays displaying a reversed polarity signature.
The age of this till can only be constrained to sometime between
the last two polarity reversals. It has been assigned a poorly
constrained age of pre-Illinoian ( 788 ka-2400 ka; Richmond and
Fullerton, 1986; Sevon and Fleeger, 1999).
5.2 Fluvial Terraces and the Susquehanna River: Fluvial
terraces presumably represent changes in climate as well as periods
of isostatic adjustment, and are therefore useful tools for investigating
the interaction between glaciation, fluvial processes and eustasy
in the Eastern U.S. during the Quaternary (Bull, 1990; Engel et
al., 1996; Hancock et al., 1999). Many researchers have studied
fluvial terraces of the Susquehanna River in order to investigate
the geomorphic evolution of the U.S. Atlantic passive margin,
beginning primarily with an extensive study conducted by Peltier
(1949). Correlation between a series of upland terraces (80-140
m above the modern channel) and coastal plain and fall zone deposits
was used to establish terrace ages throughout the Piedmont Province
of Pennsylvania in an attempt to quantify late Cenozoic passive
margin deformation (Pazzaglia and Gardner, 1993, 1994a, b). Flights
of younger (Pleistocene) alluvial terraces were identified and
studied for the purpose of establishing soil chronosequences in
order to facilitate correlation to similar features found elsewhere
in the middle Atlantic region (Engel et al., 1996). Based on soil
development characteristics, several of the six identified alluvial
terraces, located upstream from the Holtwood Gorge field area,
were tentatively correlated to the late Wisconsin, Illinoian,
and pre-Illinoian glacial advances in Pennsylvania. However, no
definite age control was established for the alluvial terraces.
No such correlation or dating has been rigorously attempted on
the bedrock straths preserved in Holtwood Gorge.
5.3 Cosmogenic Nuclides: The continual bombardment of Earth's
surface by secondary cosmic rays (primarily neutrons) results
in the steady production and accumulation of cosmogenic nuclides
within exposed rock and sediment (Lal and Peters, 1967). The in-situ
production rate of these nuclides depends upon the strength of
Earth's magnetic field and thickness of the overlying atmosphere
at any given point on Earth's surface (Lal, 1991). As a result,
latitude and altitude corrections must be made when transforming
measured nuclide concentrations into exposure ages (Lal, 1991).
This study will utilize two radioactive cosmogenic isotopes, 10Be
and 26Al, which result from the spallation of O and Si respectively,
in order the obtain exposure ages of bedrock surfaces.
Cosmogenic nuclides have been employed in a variety of geomorphic
studies since the mid 1980's. Nuclide activities have been used
to obtain exposure ages of glacial boulders (Evenson and Goose,
1993; Marsella et al., 2000; Nishiizumi et al., 1989), estimate
landscape erosion rates (Bierman and Caffee, 2001, 2002; Granger
et al., 1996, 1997), calculate rates of sediment transport (Bierman
and Steig, 1996; Nichols et al., 2002), and suggest depostional
histories (Anderson et al., 1996; Granger and Muzikar, 2001).
Although 10Be and 26Al have been used in many studies to date
alluvial terraces (e.g., Hancock et al., 1999; Repka et al., 1997),
only 3 studies have been conducted on bedrock (strath) terraces
(Burbank et al., 1996; Leland et al., 1994; Leland et al., 1998),
all in the Himalaya on rapidly downcutting rivers in an active
tectonic setting.
6.0 Work Plan:
My work thus far has, and will continue to focus on Holtwood
Gorge because of the flights of well preserved and extensive strath
terraces, relatively easy accessibility afforded by Holtwood Dam,
and the abundance of extractable quartz.
6.1 Field Work: Working with Eric Butler as my field assistant,
I spent approximately four weeks within Holtwood gorge scouting
every available surface for the most representative and accessible
sample sites and conducting a comprehensive Trimble 4400 differential
GPS (offering cm resolution) survey for the purpose of lateral
and longitudinal correlation of identified terrace levels. In
order to ensure the accuracy of GPS data, I established a series
of control points along the length of the gorge and measured them
daily. I used a hammer and chisel to collect 64 samples composed
of quartz boudins or schist groundmass from the selected water
polished surfaces of the Wissahickon Schist. Altitude, latitude,
sample thickness, and exposure geometry were recorded in order
to make the appropriate production rate corrections (Lal, 1991).
I employed a 'nested' sampling strategy in order to investigate
isotopic activity variance on what I interpret to be single terrace
levels, at small (5-10 m), medium (cross-stream, 500 m), and large
(downstream, up to 5 km) spatial scales (Figures 4 & 5).
6.2 Map and Laboratory Work: I constructed a field map
delineating all correlated dissected strath terraces and sample-site
locations using aerial photographs and high accuracy elevation
GPS data collected from Holtwood Gorge (Figure 4). I have calculated
and constructed trend surface plots of each terrace level in order
to depict the downstream gradient that occurs over the five kilometers
spanned by the gorge (Figure 6).
Most samples have already undergone the first step in processing
at the University of Vermont using standard techniques (Bierman
and Caffee, 2001). I have purified 40 g of quartz through the
use of acid etching and density separation (Kohl and Nishiizumi,
1992). I will assist Jennifer Larsen in the isolation of 26Al
& 10Be in the cosmogenic laboratory as it is prepared for
isotopic measurement by accelerator mass spectrometry at the Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory in Livermore, California. Two full
laboratory replicates will be run to test for accuracy and reproducibility
of sample preparation and nuclide concentration measurement. 10Be
will be measured for all samples while paired nuclide analysis
(26Al and 10Be) will be conducted on several samples for quality
control and to rule out extended (>100 ky) periods of burial,
which appear geomorphically unlikely.
6.3 Data Analysis: Nuclide activities will be analyzed
in an attempt to decipher the spatial patterning, timing, and
rates of bedrock incision as well as to infer the erosional processes
responsible for carving Holtwood Gorge. Measured nuclide activities
for all samples will be reduced to exposure ages using the altitude-latitude
scaling function presented in Lal (1991). Exposure ages will be
plotted against distance downstream from the dam front for all
terrace levels in order to determine rates of knickpoint propagation
(if this is indeed the how the gorge incised). Terrace level exposure
ages from samples collected in cross-section will be used to calculated
rates of vertical incision between levels. The spatial pattern
of erosion for each correlated strath will be investigated using
small and medium scale nuclide activity variance. Statistical
analysis will be applied to all small, medium, and large scale
sampling strategies to determine the power with which conclusions
can be drawn. Finally, the modeled erosional history of Holtwood
Gorge will be compared to the Pleistocene glacial chronology of
Pennsylvania (Braun, 1988, 1994) and the northern hemisphere (Richmond
and Fullerton, 1986), the Pleistocene sea level record, and the
glacial forebulge model in the hopes of understanding the timing
and ultimate causes of episodic incision recorded as bedrock terraces
within the gorge.
7.0 Time Line:
Work Completed To Date:
May and June, 2002: Scout and map Holtwood gorge field
area. Select potential sample sites. Conduct Pro XR GPS survey
within the gorge.
June, 2002: Field check sample sites with Paul Bierman and collect
samples from all terrace levels except the lowest strath (underwater
at this time of year).
July, 2002: Visit with Paul Bierman and Milan Pavich of the USGS
for mapping and sample collection at the Mather Gorge site on
the Potomac River.
July, 2002: Collect samples from the now exposed lower strath
and collect high accuracy (cm) 4400 GPS data for all sample sites.
August 2002: Quartz making at the University of Vermont. Continue
background reading, construct air photo maps, construct Susquehanna
Project webpage and, finish writing proposal and prepare defense
presentation.
Fall 2002
Sept. or Oct., 2002: Proposal Oral Defense.
Sept. and Oct., 2002: Continue quartz making and chemical isolation
of 26Al and 10Be at the University of Vermont cosmogenic laboratory
with Jen Larsen.
Oct.,2002: Present poster on the Potomac River project at the
GSA Annual meeting in Denver, Colorado.
Nov., 2002: Return to Holtwood Gorge for follow-up sampling and
GPS work on sites previously under leaf cover.
Dec., 2002: Initial Mass Spectrometer measurement of sample nuclide
concentrations at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
Continue research and background reading.
Spring 2003
AMS measurement of most samples.
Submit written progress report in March.
Present progress report oral defense.
Begin writing thesis.
Possible presentation at Spring AGU meeting
Conduct follow-up sampling and/or GPS work as needed.
Summer 2003
Return to Holtwood Gorge and field check all sample sites.
Continue writing thesis.
Salary supported by grant
Fall 2003
RA supported.
Complete thesis and begin edits.
Present at GSA annual meeting.
8.0 Discussion of Preliminary Data:
Data collected during my first season of field work has been
analyzed and used in a number of ways, both while at the Holtwood
Gorge field area and at the University of Vermont. Field observations,
GPS data, aerial photographs, and map interpretations have been
used to determine the present river gradient and infer paleo-river
gradients for the correlated strath terraces (Figures 4 &
5).
Present Water Level Gradient: A distinctive water level
mark on the lowest strath was observed in the upper gorge (0-2
km downstream from the dam front) during a sustained period of
no flow (on the order of weeks). Locally, it represented a pool
elevation at a certain distance downstream from the dam. GPS coordinates
for pool elevations were collected from the dam face to approximately
2 km downstream, which when plotted as distance downstream vs.
elevation yielded what is interpreted to be the present river
gradient (1.3 m/km, R2=0.97; Figures 3f & 6).
Terrace Level 1: Level 1 is restricted to the western two
thirds of the river and is exposed only in the upper gorge. This
level can be correlated for 2.56 km downstream and yields an inferred
paleo-river gradient of 1.5 m/km with an R2 value of 0.82 (Figure
6).
Terrace Level 2: Level 2 can be correlated 4.74 km downstream
and is the best preserved and most obvious level seen in most
parts of the gorge. In general, level 2 exhibits well preserved,
water sculpted surfaces and yields a paleo-river gradient of 1.6
m/km (R2=0.91; Figure 6).
Terrace Level 3: Exposures of the level three terrace are
restricted primarily to the middle gorge as the highest surfaces
on the upstream nose of many mid-channel islands. It has been
correlated 4.51 kilometers downstream with an inferred paleo-gradient
of 1.8 m/km (R2=0.69; Figure 6).
There appears to be an increase in terrace level gradient with
elevation above the modern channel. I am uncertain whether this
is a 'real' trend, or simply the result of natural variability
along correlated terrace surfaces.
Level 4: Due to the heavily weathered condition of surfaces
reaching an elevation high enough to be called greater than level
3, this level is not considered a terrace. Two samples were collected
from level 4 high points to investigate the nuclide activity on
these weathered surfaces, which are thought to be of considerable
age (several 100's ky).
Control Points: Three control points were established,
one in each the upper, middle and lower gorge and measured in
the morning and evening over the course of five consecutive days.
Standard deviations for point locations were +/- 0.009 m, +/-
0.016 m, and +/- 0.020 m respectively, offering extremely accurate
terrace level elevations and paleo-river gradients.
Having no nuclide data at present, it is difficult to speculate
about the timing and rate of incision, or the mechanisms responsible
for carving the gorge. There are, however, several scenarios to
consider. If knickpoints did, at times in the past, migrate headwards
through Holtwood Gorge (Figure 2), we would expect to see nuclide
concentrations (and corresponding model ages on each terrace)
decreasing upstream as the river abandoned its channel for a lower
one during the steady incision of the gorge. This scenario requires
that the rate of knickpoint retreat is slow enough to allow for
measurable longitudinal variance (accumulation of cosmogenic nuclides
within exposed rocks). A potential driving force for terrace formation
of this kind would be a eustatic drop in sea level caused by the
onset of a glacial period.
On the other hand, if no longitudinal variance of nuclide concentration
is detected on a terrace level, we must look for another mechanism
capable of forcing a river to incise quickly through bedrock on
a passive margin. The easiest explanation would be that the rate
of retreat was faster than the resolution of the cosmogenic dating
technique. Some researchers (Kockel and Parris, 2000; Sevon and
Thompson, 1987) have proposed that catastrophic floods, caused
by glacial outbursts during deglaciations, had the power to carve
through Holtwood Gorge in this manner. Another possible mechanism
would be regional isostatic adjustment which would slowly and
uniformly raise the bed of the river, forcing the Susquehanna
to incise its channel in order to maintain a steady gradient.
A glacial forebulge or flexural upwarping of the fall-zone and
high piedmont, caused by sediment loading into the Baltimore Trough
(Pazzaglia and Gardner, 1994a, b) are other potential mechanisms
capable of forcing the Susquehanna River to incise into the bedrock
channel of Holtwood Gorge.
9.0 Funding:
Funding for analysis and field work provided under an NSF
grant to Paul Bierman. Grant # EAR0003447
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